Manoeuvring through the East–West and North–South Conflict: The Angolan War

The roots of the Angolan War are difficult to determine, as knowledge of the belligerents and their background remains limited due to the lack of internal sources. The rivalry between the three Angolan liberation movements, with their different ideological outlooks and visions for the development of Angola, was based, at least initially, on their different ethnic groups and regional strongholds. They were each led by an ambitious authoritarian leader and had entered into different international alliances, all of which had prevented the formation of a common anti-colonial front during the independence wars. Pressured by the OAU and independent African governments, the FNLA, the MPLA, and UNITA had briefly set aside their differences in early 1975 to conclude the Alvor Agreement on decolonisation with the Portuguese government. After repeated clashes in the first half of 1975, the shaky truce between the three Angolan liberation movements was shattered in July. The MPLA expelled FNLA troops from Luanda and the transitional government collapsed. FNLA leader Holden Roberto left his exile in Zaire and led his troops’ march towards Luanda. Meanwhile, UNITA fought the MPLA in central and southern Angola. Occupied with the political, economic, and social upheaval in Portugal, the colonial authorities were unable to control the decolonisation process in Angola, despite their ongoing military presence. At the same time, the three movements’ external allies stepped up their support. In midJuly 1975, the South African Prime Minister decided to support the FNLA and UNITA with weapons and equipment amounting to CHF 76 million (US$ 27.4 million). On 18 July, the US government, which had already granted limited support to the FNLA in January 1975, authorised the disbursement of US$ 6 million for IAFEATURE, a covert CIA operation aimed at preventing an MPLA victory by strengthening its two opponents. Until August, this was followed by two further payments of US$ 8 million and US$ 10.7 million. In early August, a Cuban mission arrived in Angola to determine the MPLA’s need for aid.1 The extent of Soviet and Chinese involvement in the Angolan War is less clear. The