Long-term survival of Dehalococcoides mccartyi strains in mixed cultures under electron acceptor and ammonium limitation.

Few strains of Dehalococcoides mccartyi harbour and express the vinyl chloride reductase (VcrA) that catalyzes the dechlorination of vinyl chloride (VC), a carcinogenic soil and groundwater contaminant. The vcrA operon is found on a Genomic Island (GI) and, therefore, believed to participate in horizontal gene transfer (HGT). To try to induce HGT of the vcrA-GI, we blended two enrichment cultures in medium without ammonium while providing VC. We hypothesized that these conditions would select for a mutant strain of D. mccartyi that could both fix nitrogen and respire VC. However, after more than 4 years of incubation, we found no evidence for HGT of the vcrA-GI. Rather, we observed VC-dechlorinating activity attributed to the trichloroethene reductase TceA. Sequencing and protein modelling revealed a mutation in the predicted active site of TceA, which may have influenced substrate specificity. We also identified two nitrogen-fixing D. mccartyi strains in the KB-1 culture. The presence of multiple strains of D. mccartyi with distinct phenotypes is a feature of natural environments and certain enrichment cultures (such as KB-1), and may enhance bioaugmentation success. The fact that multiple distinct strains persist in the culture for decades and that we could not induce HGT of the vcrA-GI suggests that it is not as mobile as predicted, or that mobility is restricted in ways yet to be discovered to specific subclades of Dehalococcoides.