A Struggle for Legitimacy: Christian Virgins in China from the Late Ming Dynasty to 1860

Abstract

Christian virgins were frequently targeted in official crackdowns by Ming and Qing governments on church activities, during which officials taking a Confucianist stance placed pressure on Christian virgins by scandalizing and criminalizing their motivations for practicing celibacy as their refusal to marry was regarded as a violation of Confucian morals. The legitimacy of Christian virgins depended on whether they were able to portray themselves as an “acceptable” type of celibate women within the Confucian patriarchal framework and the legal system of the Ming and Qing governments. During their interactions with the authorities, Christian virgins invoked pre-existing categories of chaste women that were accepted in the Confucian discourse on family order, such as “virgin widows” and “filial virgins,” to justify their way of life against attempts to criminalize their behavior. They also reaffirmed their affiliation to their patriarchal families through their everyday activities, constructing a positive self-image of themselves in stark contrast to the negative image presented by the anti-Christian literati. By adopting this strategy, they were more able to avoid external interference from the government in their religious life while remaining under the patronage of their natal family; however, the protection of their patriarchal family lost its efficacy once their acts were perceived as a direct political threat.