High-Energy-Density Zinc–Air Microbatteries with Lean PVA–KOH–K2CO3 Gel Electrolytes

Abstract

Small-scale, primary electrochemical energy storage devices (“microbatteries”) are critical power sources for microelectromechanical system (MEMS)-based sensors and actuators. However, the achievable volumetric and gravimetric energy densities of microbatteries are typically insufficient for intermediate-term applications of MEMS-enabled distributed internet-connected devices. Further, in the increasing subset of Internet of Things (IoT) nodes, where actuation is desired, the peak power density of the microbattery must be simultaneously considered. Metal–air approaches to achieving microbatteries are attractive, as the anode and cathode are amenable to miniaturization; however, further improvements in energy density can be obtained by minimizing the electrolyte volume. To investigate these potential improvements, this work studied very lean hydrogel electrolytes based on poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA). Integration of high potassium hydroxide (KOH) loading into the PVA hydrogel improved electrolyte performance. The addition of potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃) to the KOH–PVA gel decreased the carbonation consumption rate of KOH in the gel electrolyte by 23.8% compared to PVA-KOH gel alone. To assess gel performance, a microbattery was formed from a zinc (Zn) anode layer, a gel electrolyte layer, and a carbon–platinum (C–Pt) air cathode layer. Volumetric energy densities of approximately 1400 Wh L^–1 and areal peak power densities of 139 mW cm^–2 were achieved with a PVA–KOH–K₂CO₃ electrolyte. Further structural optimization, including using multilayer gel electrolytes and thinning the air cathode, resulted in volumetric and gravimetric energy densities of 1576 Wh L^–1 and 420 Wh kg^–1, respectively. The batteries described in this work are manufactured in an open environment and fabricated using a straightforward layer-by-layer method, enabling the potential for high fabrication throughput in a MEMS-compatible fashion.