Intensified human pressures threaten global mountain vertebrate biodiversity

Abstract

Mountain ecosystems host rich biodiversity and often act as last refuges for species under growing human pressure. However, the extent and recent trajectory of anthropogenic impacts on global mountain biodiversity remain poorly understood. Here, we evaluate spatio-temporal changes in human pressure across 6717 mountain ranges worldwide from 2000 to 2020 and assess future exposure to anthropogenic pressures under three Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs). We show that more than 60% of mountain ranges are exposed to elevated human pressure and that intensification of human pressure between 2000 and 2020 is associated with the loss of 71.69 Mha of natural mountain habitat. Protected areas provide incomplete buffering from human pressure, while substantial representation gaps remain for mountain vertebrates: 4234 species have less than 10% of their mountain-specific area of habitat represented within protected areas, including 1165 threatened species. We further identify mountain ranges where high biodiversity importance coincides with limited protection and elevated future exposure to land-use change, with priority rankings remaining broadly consistent across socioeconomic scenarios. Together, these results identify persistent conservation gaps and mountain systems where future conservation action could contribute to global biodiversity targets.