A comprehensive review on the general approaches and electrode material design for high-performance sodium-ion batteries

Abstract

Nowadays, new types of batteries are being extensively investigated by researchers. Among these, sodium ion batteries (SIBs) have emerged as promising candidates due to the abundant availability of sodium resources, enhanced safety, sustainability and low-cost. Therefore, SIBs are considered potential alternatives to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for future large-scale energy storage applications, particularly in addressing the limited availability and rising cost of lithium. SIBs and LIBs share similar working mechanisms and structural configurations; however, Na⁺ ions possess a larger ionic radius (1.02–1.09 ^oA) compared to Li⁺ ions (0.76 A^o), which adversely affects their electrochemical performance, especially in terms of ion diffusion kinetics and structural stability of electrode materials. Consequently, SIBs often face challenges such as capacity fading and low Coulombic efficiency during both half-cell and full-cell testing. Therefore, this review article aims to summarize the most suitable electroactive materials for both anode and cathode applications in sodium-ion batteries. The anode materials reviewed in this article include carbonaceous materials, organic materials, and metal alloys. The main problems in the anode materials are significant volume expansion and poor ionic conductivity. In particular, natural biopolymers such as chitosan, cellulose, and lignin have been widely utilized as precursors for the synthesis of hard carbon materials via pyrolysis, owing to their high abundance, easy of formation, and sustainable nature. Hard carbons (HCs) synthesized within the temperature range of 800–1000 °C exhibit favorable electrochemical properties, including reversible capacity, excellent cycling stability, and improved initial Coulombic efficiency. In addition, graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) have been widely employed as anode materials due to their large specific surface area, superior electrical conductivity, and excellent electrochemical performance. Their strong compatibility with other active materials also enables the formation of hybrid structures with enhanced sodium-ion storage capabilities. Carbon nanotube-based materials, biomass-derived carbons, transition metal oxides and sulfides, Sn-based compounds, transition metal nitrides, metal alloys, and MXene-type materials have been extensively reported as promising anode materials for SIBs, owing to their diverse sodium storage mechanisms and tunable structural properties. On the other hand, next-generation cathode materials discussed in NASICON-type materials, Na-layered transition metal oxides, transition metal sulfides, phosphorus-based materials, and Na-metal based systems, and Prussian, blue-based materials (polyanionic compounds), which explains challenges related to ionic conductivity and stability for achieving high-performance SIBs.