Fundamentals, Advances, and Applications of Electrospun Nanofibrous 3D Materials

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) electrospun nanofibrous systems have become a transformative class of materials, effectively bridging the gap between traditional two-dimensional (2D) electrospun membranes and advanced aerogels. These systems offer a unique microenvironment, such as interconnected pores, ultralight structures, and tunable mechanical and chemical properties for applications across biomedicine as well as engineering. This review provides a comprehensive overview of key fabrication strategies for 3D nanofibers, including freeze-drying, gas foaming, electrospinning-assisted assembly, templating, and additive manufacturing, that allow precise control over the 3D architecture and thereby tailor the properties and performance. We explore how these design principles influence material properties such as cell infiltration, degradability, and mechanical stability, enabling applications in tissue engineering, hemostasis, wound healing, drug delivery, and biosensing. Beyond biomedical applications, we highlight the increasing potential of 3D electrospun nanofibers in environmental applications, including filtration and oil-water separation, as well as thermal and acoustic insulation. Finally, we discuss major challenges, including scalability, and identify emerging opportunities for developing next-generation multifunctional fibrous architectures. Overall, this review aims to create a unified framework that links fabrication techniques, structure-property relationships, and application-specific design to accelerate innovation and translation in 3D electrospun nanofibrous materials.