Can batteries be fully sustainable?

IF 6.2 3区材料科学 Q2 CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

Carbon Letters Pub Date : 2026-08-20 DOI:10.1007/s42823-026-01126-2

Oluwasegun Emmanuel Ojodun, Jianwei Ren

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Abstract

Concerns over the environmental impact, supply chain vulnerability, and long-term availability of conventional lithium-ion battery (LIB) materials have intensified interest in sustainable alternatives. This review defines a fully sustainable battery as one in which all components are derived from renewable materials and produced through eco-friendly processes across their entire lifecycle, consistent with the ISO 14044:2006 LCA framework. The current state of partially sustainable batteries is evaluated against this definition through a critical review of recent advances in biomass-derived carbon anodes, organic cathode materials, biopolymer gel electrolytes, cellulose-based separators, bio-derived binders, and carbonaceous current collectors across lithium-ion, sodium-ion (SIB), and aqueous zinc-ion (ZIB) battery chemistries. Key findings include the cost and carbon footprint competitiveness of biomass-derived hard carbon anodes with synthetic graphite ($1.72 kg⁻¹ vs $4.97 kg⁻¹; 3.2 vs 25.1 kg CO₂-eq kg⁻¹), the ionic conductivity competitiveness of biopolymer gel electrolytes with conventional liquid electrolytes (up to 11 mS cm⁻¹), and the consistent superiority of cellulose-based separators over commercial polypropylene in thermal stability, electrolyte wettability, and biodegradability. This review makes an original contribution by identifying four challenges that prevent the integration of these components into a fully sustainable battery. The costs, sustainability, and lifecycle assessments of LIBs, SIBs, and ZIBs are comparatively evaluated using available LCA data, and prospects for sustainable battery recycling are assessed. Based on this analysis, five research directions are proposed, with SIBs and aqueous ZIBs identified as the most viable configurations for fully sustainable batteries given their compatibility with bio-derived materials and lower lifecycle environmental impact.

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电池是完全可持续的吗？

对环境影响、供应链脆弱性和传统锂离子电池（LIB）材料长期可用性的担忧加剧了人们对可持续替代品的兴趣。本综述将完全可持续电池定义为所有组件均来自可再生材料，并在其整个生命周期中通过环保过程生产，符合ISO 14044:2006 LCA框架。通过对锂离子、钠离子（SIB）和含水锌离子（ZIB）电池化学成分的生物质衍生碳阳极、有机阴极材料、生物聚合物凝胶电解质、纤维素基隔膜、生物衍生粘合剂和碳质集电剂的最新进展进行批判性回顾，根据这一定义评估了部分可持续电池的现状。主要发现包括合成石墨的生物质硬碳阳极的成本和碳足迹竞争力（1.72 kg - 1美元vs 4.97 kg - 1美元；3.2 vs 25.1 kg CO₂-eq kg - 1），生物聚合物凝胶电解质与传统液体电解质的离子电导率竞争力（高达11 mS cm - 1），以及纤维素基分离器在热稳定性，电解质润湿性和生物降解性方面始终优于商用聚丙烯。本综述通过确定阻碍将这些组件集成到完全可持续电池中的四个挑战，做出了原创性贡献。利用现有的LCA数据，对lib、sib和zib的成本、可持续性和生命周期评估进行了比较评估，并对电池可持续回收的前景进行了评估。基于这一分析，提出了五个研究方向，其中sib和水性zib被认为是完全可持续电池最可行的配置，因为它们与生物衍生材料的兼容性和较低的生命周期环境影响。

本文章由计算机程序翻译，如有差异，请以英文原文为准。

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来源期刊

Carbon Letters CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY-MATERIALS SCIENCE, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

CiteScore

7.30

自引率

20.00%

发文量

118

期刊介绍： Carbon Letters aims to be a comprehensive journal with complete coverage of carbon materials and carbon-rich molecules. These materials range from, but are not limited to, diamond and graphite through chars, semicokes, mesophase substances, carbon fibers, carbon nanotubes, graphenes, carbon blacks, activated carbons, pyrolytic carbons, glass-like carbons, etc. Papers on the secondary production of new carbon and composite materials from the above mentioned various carbons are within the scope of the journal. Papers on organic substances, including coals, will be considered only if the research has close relation to the resulting carbon materials. Carbon Letters also seeks to keep abreast of new developments in their specialist fields and to unite in finding alternative energy solutions to current issues such as the greenhouse effect and the depletion of the ozone layer. The renewable energy basics, energy storage and conversion, solar energy, wind energy, water energy, nuclear energy, biomass energy, hydrogen production technology, and other clean energy technologies are also within the scope of the journal. Carbon Letters invites original reports of fundamental research in all branches of the theory and practice of carbon science and technology.