Photoresponsive and Redox-Active Chromophore-Based Materials for Advanced Supercapacitors: Recent Progress and Future Perspectives

Abstract

The increasing demand for sustainable, lightweight, and high-performance energy-storage technologies has stimulated extensive research into organic electrode materials for supercapacitors. Among these, chromophore-based materials have emerged as promising candidates because of their tunable electronic structures, rich redox activity, extended π conjugation, and structural versatility. This review comprehensively summarizes recent advances in chromophore-derived supercapacitor materials, with particular emphasis on perylene, pyrene, porphyrin, quinoline, and related π-conjugated systems. The molecular design strategies employed to enhance electrochemical performance, including donor–acceptor engineering, heteroatom doping, framework construction, polymerization, and hybridization with conductive nanomaterials, are critically discussed. Furthermore, the structure–property–performance relationships governing charge storage, ion transport, conductivity, and cycling stability are systematically analyzed. A comparative evaluation of electrochemical metrics is presented with consideration of device configuration, electrolyte selection, and testing conditions to provide a balanced assessment of material performance. Although several chromophore-based systems exhibit promising capacitance, energy density, and long-term stability, challenges associated with intrinsic conductivity, scalability, and standardized benchmarking remain significant barriers to practical implementation. The review highlights the fundamental charge-storage mechanisms, key performance determinants, and emerging opportunities for molecular engineering of chromophores in next-generation energy-storage devices. By integrating insights from molecular design, electrochemical behavior, and device-level performance, this review provides a comprehensive framework for the rational development of advanced chromophore-based supercapacitors and identifies future directions toward sustainable and high-efficiency energy-storage technologies.