Technology-Supported Interventions and Learners’ Metacognition: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis

Abstract

Abstract Despite the growing use of educational technologies, including AI and generative AI, how these technologies support learners’ metacognition remains insufficiently understood. The present study synthesised 33 studies using a three-level meta-analysis. Technology-supported interventions were associated with higher metacognitive outcomes on average, Hedges’ g  = 0.653, 95% CI [0.520, 0.786], although heterogeneity was substantial. Technology type did not significantly moderate effects. Exploratory analyses showed descriptively larger estimates for interventions with technology-use guidance, immediate feedback, and system-directed learner control, but none remained significant after BH-FDR adjustment (adjusted p = .095 for each). Because these features overlapped, the patterns are hypothesis-generating rather than evidence of independent moderator effects. Interventions most frequently supported evaluation/reflection, monitoring, and strategic control, whereas planning was less consistently represented. Importantly, 77 of 94 effects (81.9%) concerned metacognitive regulation, and 90 (95.7%) relied on self-report measures, indicating that the pooled association primarily reflects self-reported metacognitive regulation. Overall, the findings suggest that technology-supported interventions can support metacognitive outcomes, while these effects should be interpreted in light of the specific regulatory processes targeted and how metacognitive outcomes are measured.