Sociodemographic and Dog-Management Factors Associated With Free-Roaming Dogs in Nigeria and Sierra Leone

Abstract

Free-roaming dogs (FRDs) pose a persistent challenge to canine rabies elimination in low- and middle-income countries, as conventional vaccination strategies often struggle to reach this population, which increases the risk of dog bites, rabies virus exposure and traffic accidents and complicates rabies control efforts. We conducted cross-sectional surveys in Nigeria and Sierra Leone and fitted country-specific probabilistic models to identify factors associated with FRD ownership. The proportion of FRDs was higher in Sierra Leone (78.7%; 95% CI: 77.1–80.3) than in Nigeria (58.5%; 95% CI: 58.2–61.2). In both countries, significant interactions between locality (urban versus rural), education level, access to veterinary services and dog vaccination status influenced FRD ownership. The probability of FRD ownership was higher among respondents with no formal education, particularly those living in rural areas with no access, or uncertain access, to veterinary services. In Nigeria, FRD ownership increased with household poverty. In Sierra Leone, it was highest in low-density rural areas, declined sharply with increasing population density and decreased with distance from roads. The interaction between literacy and primary education was associated with reduced FRD ownership, although neither variable was significant when considered independently. In both countries, owners with good rabies knowledge and owners of indigenous, rather than mixed-breed, dogs were more likely to own FRDs. Spatial variation in FRD ownership was evident in both countries. In Nigeria, dog owners in Kaduna and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) were less likely to own FRDs than those in Anambra and Enugu. In Sierra Leone, the probability of FRD ownership was substantially higher in northern than in southern regions. Based on human-to-dog ratios of 2.77:1 in Nigeria and 2.75:1 in Sierra Leone, we estimated dog populations of ~11.7–12.7 million and 666,000, respectively. These findings highlight the need for targeted public education on responsible dog ownership and effective dog management, alongside community-level interventions in rural and other high-risk areas to reduce FRD populations. The resulting population estimates provide valuable evidence for planning and implementing mass canine rabies vaccination programs in both countries.