Electrochemical detection of organophosphorus pesticides using screen-printed electrodes: a systematic literature review.

Abstract

Organophosphorus pesticides are widely used in agriculture, creating a need for rapid and reliable monitoring of residues in food and environmental samples. Conventional chromatographic methods provide high sensitivity and accuracy but generally require laboratory-based instrumentation, sample preparation and skilled personnel, limiting their suitability for routine on-site screening. Screen-printed electrode (SPE)-based electrochemical sensors offer a portable and low-cost alternative; however, their practical application remains constrained by limited selectivity, enzyme instability, electrode-to-electrode variability and insufficient validation in complex samples. This systematic review evaluates 103 studies published between 2015 and 2026 to examine how electrode materials, surface modification, biorecognition strategies and electrochemical techniques have been used to address these challenges. Carbon-based SPEs remain the predominant platform, while recent developments increasingly employ hybrid architectures combining conductive carbon materials with metal or metal-oxide nanomaterials and polymeric or biopolymeric matrices. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) remains the most widely used biorecognition element because of its established inhibition mechanism, whereas aptamers, molecularly imprinted materials and non-enzymatic interfaces are increasingly investigated to improve stability and selectivity. These approaches have enabled substantial improvements in detection limits, analytical sensitivity and operational performance, with many recent sensors achieving trace-level detection and successful analysis of food and environmental samples. Nevertheless, the reviewed literature reveals persistent challenges in long-term stability, batch-to-batch reproducibility, standardized reporting, interference assessment and validation under realistic field conditions. Future development should therefore focus on scalable electrode fabrication, standardized analytical protocols, systematic testing in complex matrices and integration with portable and digital readout systems. Overall, SPE-based electrochemical sensors show strong potential for rapid organophosphorus pesticide screening, but further validation and standardization are required before widespread field deployment.