Microplastic and endocrine disruptor contamination in infant formula and early health effects: scoping review

Abstract

Microplastics are recognized as emerging pollutants with increasing importance to public health. Low concentrations have been shown to affect endocrine and metabolic processes during critical developmental stages, such as early childhood. Infant formula and its packaging are potential sources of exposure to high daily particle levels and multiple types of microplastics. In addition, bisphenols and others are associated with thyroid, oestrogenic, and metabolic disorders and have been identified in these products. A scoping review was conducted following the JBI and PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Articles published between 2015 and 2025 were searched in multiple databases. Predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied, and the extracted information was synthesized in a standardized matrix. A total of 223 articles were identified, 27 of which were included after the selection process. Studies have documented the presence of various chemical agents and microplastics (MPs) in infant formula and packaging. The release of millions of particles per liter during the preparation of plastic bottles was reported, along with evidence of prenatal and breast milk exposure. The reported findings include alterations in the intestinal microbiota, changes in immune-related biomarkers and responses, and potential alterations in endocrine function. The available evidence, although limited, suggests that infants are frequently exposed to MPs and EDCs through infant formula and packaging. The reported findings include associations with alterations in the intestinal microbiota, immune-related biomarkers, and endocrine function, although most evidence derives from experimental, animal, or observational studies. The absence of strict regulations and the scarcity of longitudinal studies reinforce the urgency of advancing public policies to control these agents and promoting health education to reduce exposure.