Spent graphite as a novel resource: Advanced regeneration technologies and life closed-loop sustainability

Abstract

The rapid growth of electric vehicles has produced huge numbers of spent lithium-ion batteries. As the primary anode material, spent graphite requires urgent recycling to alleviate resource shortage and mitigate environmental risks. This review systematically summarizes recent progress in recycling and high-value utilization of spent graphite anode. We first describe how graphite fails during long time battery operation, typical include particle cracking, solid electrolyte interface damage, lithium dendrites growth, or copper foil corrosion. Next, primary pretreatment processes (safe disassembly, advanced crushing, foam flotation, and chemical leaching) are outlined as essential preliminary engineering steps. Focusing on structural restoration, we critically review direct regeneration technologies, encompassing optimized high-temperature graphitization, chemical remediation, and emerging low-carbon routes such as flash Joule heating, deep eutectic solvent leaching, pre-lithiation, and ultrafast physical heating (microwave). Beyond direct reuse, spent graphite can be upgraded into functional carbon materials for supercapacitors, water cleaning, and catalysts. Finally, we assessed the industrial feasibility of these methods in terms of both production costs and carbon footprint. This work provides comprehensive theoretical guidance for establishing a closed-loop, sustainable graphite recycling system.