Effects of maternal Moringa oleifera–royal jelly supplementation on the infant gut microbiota at six months in rural Indonesia

Abstract

Background

Maternal nutrition during pregnancy influences the early establishment of the infant gut microbiota, yet the impact of food-based interventions combining Moringa oleifera and royal jelly, particularly in low-resource settings such as Indonesia, remains underexplored. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of maternal Moringa oleifera–royal jelly (MRJ) supplementation during pregnancy on the abundance of five predefined infant gut bacterial genera at six months of age.

Methods

A follow-up randomized controlled trial involving 88 mother–infant pairs was conducted in rural Banggai, Indonesia. Pregnant women received either MRJ or multiple micronutrient supplements (MMS) from the second trimester until delivery. Infant fecal samples collected at six months were analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR targeting five dominant bacterial genera (Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, Clostridium, and Escherichia coli). Associations were examined using generalized linear models adjusted for maternal, infant, environmental, and breastfeeding-related factors.

Results

The infant gut microbiota was dominated by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, with a higher combined abundance of beneficial than opportunistic genera (p = 0.0017). No significant differences in genus-level abundance were observed between MRJ and MMS groups. In adjusted generalized linear models, MRJ supplementation was not associated with any of the five assessed genera (all p > 0.05).

Conclusions

Maternal MRJ supplementation was not associated with differences in the abundance of the five assessed bacterial genera at six months compared with MMS. These findings suggest that MRJ may serve as a safe food-based strategy that complements MMS within antenatal nutrition programs.