Reframing Mother–Child Closeness and Cooperative Caregiving: A Comparative Study of Two Hunter-Gatherer Populations

Abstract

Objectives

Caregiving during early childhood emerges from a dynamic interplay between maternal and allomaternal contributions. This study aimed to challenge polarized portrayals of hunter-gatherer childcare as either “mother-centered” or “cooperative” and provide empirical evidence for an integrative cross-cultural approach.

Materials and Methods

We compared caregiving structures in two hunter-gatherer populations positioned at contrasting ends of a continuum of child-rearing strategies: the !Xun in southern Africa, portrayed as emphasizing mother–child closeness, and the Baka in central Africa, described as exemplifying cooperative caregiving. Over 500 h of caregiving interactions involving 40 children (1–59 months) were recorded using a standardized focal-follow protocol with 30-s interval coding. Rates of maternal, allomaternal, and peer-based caregiving behaviors were analyzed using generalized additive mixed models.

Results

Maternal holding did not differ between the !Xun and the Baka, underscoring the central role of mothers during infancy. However, breastfeeding was less frequent among the !Xun than among the Baka. Allomaternal holding was less frequent among the !Xun than among the Baka. When focusing on child and adolescent allomaternal caregivers, child-holding was more frequent among the !Xun than among the Baka during a period that included the likely !Xun weaning period. Care by young allomaternal caregivers may have played a supportive role during the earlier weaning period associated with sedentarization.

Discussion

Human caregiving systems should not be understood as either “mother-centered” or “cooperative”. Rather, they should be understood as flexible combinations of interrelated components—including maternal, allomaternal, and peer-based care—shaped by ecological, social, and developmental factors.