The Enduring Influence of Historic Walls on Urban Development: A Multi-Temporal Analysis of Damghan, Iran

Abstract

Unregulated land-use changes create significant challenges in managing historic urban environments, especially in earthquake-prone regions. Damghan city in northeastern Iran, protected by an 8.8-km defensive wall, provides a unique case for investigating the long-term influence of fortification structures on spatial development. In this study, declassified satellite imagery, historical maps, and aerial photographs were used to reconstruct land-use transformations. All datasets were geometrically corrected and orthorectified, followed by object-based image classification and change detection analysis. The results demonstrated that the urban area expanded progressively, particularly after the 1970s, with a pronounced westward orientation. Despite the loss of defensive function, the ancient wall persisted as a spatial boundary constraining urban growth. The analysis also indicated that the early destruction of the eastern wall segment and environmental factors likely limited expansion toward the east. To situate wall effects among concurrent drivers, we contextualize post-1970 growth with population, transport, and conservation regimes and interpret the wall as a persistent spatial prior rather than a singular cause. These findings highlight that historical defensive structures continue to shape urban form over centuries. The study underscores the potential of integrating multi-temporal remote sensing and historical data to inform sustainable management of historic settlements in arid regions.