The effectiveness of extended reality training programmes for improving psychomotor skill performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract

Organisations are increasingly implementing extended reality (XR) in education, organisational training, and sports practice. However, the effectiveness of XR compared to conventional training methods, and the potential improvements that additional sensory information, such as haptic feedback, may offer are unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis compared XR with non-XR training programmes in improving psychomotor skill performance (RQ1), assessed whether haptic feedback improved programmes’ effectiveness, and investigated the associations between methodological and technological design features on performance outcomes (RQ2, RQ3). Eight databases were searched on June 30th, 2025, for randomised controlled trials quantitatively measuring task performance of a psychomotor skill after an XR-based training programme. Sensitivity analyses, publication bias and risk of bias were assessed. Due to non-independence of effect sizes, robust variance meta-regression (RVEMR) models were run and presented using forest plots. Seventy-eight reports were assessed, totalling 3546 participants. Both the post-training scores and pre-post-training change scores between XR and non-XR groups were assessed. Two RVEMR models were created by splitting the control groups into two types: passive (no training) and active (non-XR training). Both models found statistically significant positive effects of XR training over non-XR training on task performance. No explanatory variables were found to be consistently associated with task performance, although haptic feedback showed a consistent, non-significant negative effect on task performance. Evidence certainty was limited by high methodological heterogeneity, low-moderate risk of bias, and poor methods reporting. Overall, XR-based training generally appears to be beneficial for training psychomotor skills over and above conventional training. Further research into the role of haptic feedback and other potential predictive variables in performance outcomes is warranted. Researchers are also advised to improve methodological reporting to aid future evidence syntheses in this research area.