Biogenic fabrication of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles using plant extracts: a comprehensive overview

Abstract

Using plants to produce metal and metal oxide nanoparticles is becoming a popular substitute for conventional chemical and physical techniques, largely because it’s simpler, safer, and more eco-friendly. This green synthesis approach is recognized for its environmental friendliness, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability. Plants are abundant in a wide variety of bioactive compounds-such as flavonoids, phenolics, alkaloids, terpenoids, and proteins-that naturally function as reducing, capping, and stabilizing agents during nanoparticle formation. This review presents a thorough examination of the underlying synthesis pathways, key factors that influence nanoparticle production, and the resulting structural and functional attributes of the plant-synthesized nanoparticles. Special attention is given to their diverse applications across multiple domains, including biomedical uses (e.g., antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant effects), agricultural improvements (such as nano-fertilizers and pest management), environmental solutions (including pollutant breakdown and water treatment), and catalytic processes. While the approach shows great potential, several challenges persist-particularly in terms of large-scale production, achieving consistency in nanoparticle morphology, and fully elucidating the synthesis mechanisms. This review compiles existing findings and outlines prospective research directions to support the continued development and implementation of plant-mediated nanoparticle technologies.