The Black Hole Approach and The Italian Experience.

Abstract

Introduction: Spatial disorientation poses a significant hazard to aviators, particularly during low-visibility conditions, such as nocturnal operations or adverse weather scenarios. Visual illusions, exacerbated by the absence of external references, can mislead pilots into incorrect judgments of aircraft orientation, potentially resulting in catastrophic consequences. Perrone's black hole approach theory describes how lateral reference loss distorts perceived approach angles during landing.

Methods: This study systematically assessed black hole approach risk at 119 Italian civil and military airports using Perrone's visual slant misperception formula to calculate apparent glide path angles. Airports were categorized into four risk levels: low (2-4°), moderate (4-6°), medium (6-8°), and high (>8°).

Results: Analysis revealed that nine airports (7.6% of total) presented medium to high risk (descent angles ≥6°) yet lacked Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) systems as of February 2025. Further investigation demonstrated that none of these airports are authorized for nighttime operations; thus, primary black hole approach conditions are avoided.

Discussion: These findings raise questions about whether airports lack PAPI systems because night operations are not authorized or whether the absence of visual aids drives operational limitations. Results underscore the critical importance of comprehensive pilot training in recognizing and recovering from spatial disorientation, relying on onboard instruments, and implementing advanced guidance systems. The analysis highlights the role of visual aids, such as PAPI and the Instrument Landing System, in ensuring flight safety and demonstrates the need for standardized risk assessment protocols that integrate airport physical characteristics with operational context and available safety infrastructure. Cacciapuoti L, Piccardi L, Paolillo M, Grieco M, Vittorini M, Verde P. The black hole approach and the Italian experience. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2026; 97(5):375-378.