Polymeric tissue substitutes for In-vivo radionuclide monitoring phantoms: state of the art and future directions.

Abstract

Phantoms are anthropomorphic models used for the quantitative assessment of internal radiation exposure. They are constructed from tissue-equivalent polymeric materials designed to replicate the radiological properties of real human tissues. This article presents an overview of the different types of phantoms employed in in-vivo monitoring. The fundamental requirements of tissue-equivalent materials and the principles underlying the formulation of tissue substitutes are discussed. A comprehensive review of polymeric tissue substitutes developed over the past five decades is provided, covering their production, physical and radiological properties in comparison with real human tissues, as well as the associated challenges and remaining limitations. Practical steps required to address these gaps are also highlighted. The article concludes with perspectives on future directions in phantom design and the development of advanced next-generation phantoms.