Fullerenes and their derivatives as functional materials for the detection of diverse analytes: Recent update

Abstract

Fullerenes and their derivatives have attracted considerable attention as versatile nanomaterials for chemical and biological sensing applications. Their unique physicochemical properties, including high electron affinity, redox activity, extended π-conjugation, and ability to undergo diverse functionalization, make them promising candidates for the detection of a wide range of analytes. Over the past two decades, fullerene-based systems have been developed for the sensitive and selective detection of gaseous molecules, heavy metal ions, organic pollutants, biomolecules, nucleic acids, and pathogens. Furthermore, hybrid materials incorporating fullerenes with carbon nanostructures, polymers, or metal nanoparticles have demonstrated enhanced performance due to synergistic effects in conductivity, catalytic activity, and molecular recognition. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the structural characteristics, sensing mechanisms, and recent advances in fullerene-based sensors. Particular emphasis is given to the integration of fullerenes in electrochemical, optical, and hybrid sensing platforms, highlighting their advantages, limitations, and prospects for real-world applications in environmental monitoring, biomedical diagnostics, and point-of-care testing.