Neural bioprinting and regenerative neuroengineering: Integrating geometry, conductivity, and bioactivity towards translational repair

Abstract

Neural regeneration remains one of the most formidable challenges in regenerative medicine, especially within the central nervous system (CNS) wherein the functional recovery is significantly constrained by inhibitory microenvironments, limited intrinsic plasticity, and poor structural guidance. However, recent advancements in the field of neural bioprinting has enabled remarkable control over scaffold architecture, electromechanical properties, and composition, paving way for fabricating engineered constructs that actively direct neural repair. This review consolidates emerging progress in the field of neural bioprinting through a systems-level framework that integrates biological constraints with design principles governing geometry, electromechanical compliance, and electrophysiological coupling. We analyze how microchannel architectures, compliant and composite bioinks, and electroactive materials can be harnessed to promote optimal axonal alignment, synaptic integration, and coordinated network activity. While our review primarily focuses on CNS repair, where clinical needs and translational are the highest, we have discussed the principles underlying peripheral nervous system (PNS) regeneration as biological design templates that inform scaffold-guided repair strategies. Beyond fabrication strategies, we have also highlighted how neural bioprinting facilitates the spatiotemporal integration of cellular and acellular biologics, transforming growth factors, extracellular vesicles, and gene-based interventions into architecture-dependent therapeutic components. Finally, this review also addresses translational considerations, including manufacturing reproducibility, quality control, and regulatory readiness, and positions neural bioprinting as a convergent platform for advancing the field of regenerative neuroengineering from experimental systems towards clinical translation. This review aims to advance a design-driven framework that integrates biological constraints, biomaterial behavior, and fabrication strategies to delineate actionable principles for translational neural bioprinting.