Anthropogenic drivers of mangrove degradation on the north coast of Java: insights from recent studies

Abstract

Mangrove ecosystems are among the most important components of coastal ecosystems, providing vital ecological, economic, and social functions. However, in the northern coastal area of Java Island, mangrove ecosystems have experienced significant degradation under pressure from anthropogenic activities. This study aims to analyze and classify the primary anthropogenic factors contributing to the degradation of mangrove ecosystems in the northern coastal area of Java, based on the latest available studies. The method employed is a scoping review, guided by the PRISMA-ScR framework. The data were collected from various national and international databases, including Scopus, DOAJ, EBSCO, Garuda, and Google Scholar, covering publications from January 2010 to April 2025. From the literature selection process, 44 scientific articles met the inclusion criteria and were analysed qualitatively. The study's results showed that mangrove degradation occurred in 18 districts/cities on the north coast of Java, with the highest levels of damage in metropolitan areas such as Jakarta, Semarang, and Surabaya. The primary factors contributing to degradation include converting land into ponds, industrial and residential development, coastal reclamation, pollution from industrial and domestic waste, illegal logging, and the expansion of coastal infrastructure. This combination of pressures has resulted in the loss of approximately 70% of Java's native mangrove forests over the last three decades. Recommended mitigation efforts include implementing sustainable aquaculture systems (silvofishery), developing buffer zones and green infrastructure, and adopting the Building with Nature (BwN) approach to nature-based restoration. Additionally, community-based ecological mangrove restoration (CBEMR) needs to be strengthened to enhance local participation. A cross-sectoral, science-based approach is key to achieving sustainable mangrove management on the north coast of Java Island.