Harnessing the gut–heart axis for cardiovascular drug innovation: microbiome, metabolites, and personalized treatment strategies

Abstract

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of mortality worldwide despite major advances in pharmacotherapy. Emerging evidence reveals a pivotal role for the gut–heart axis, wherein gut microbiota are and their metabolites influence CV physiology, pathology, and drug responsiveness. Dysbiosis in conditions such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, and heart failure has been associated with altered production of bioactive metabolites including trimethylamine N-oxide, short-chain fatty acids, bile acids, and tryptophan derivatives. These metabolites have been shown to modulate inflammation, endothelial function, lipid metabolism, and myocardial remodeling. This review synthesizes current knowledge on microbiome–drug interactions in CV pharmacology, including how gut bacteria may metabolize drugs (e.g., digoxin, aspirin, warfarin) and how CV agents can shape microbial communities. We further explore microbiome-targeted therapeutic strategies—probiotics, prebiotics, postbiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation, and small-molecule inhibitors of harmful metabolites—highlighting their mechanisms, preclinical evidence, and translational potential. Integrating microbiome profiling with multi-omics platforms and artificial intelligence may enable personalized treatment strategies that optimize CV outcomes. While the gut–heart axis presents an exciting frontier for drug innovation, challenges remain in establishing causality, addressing inter-individual microbiome variability, managing confounding factors such as diet and medication use, and meeting regulatory requirements. Harnessing this bidirectional relationship holds promise for transforming CV pharmacotherapy from a one-size-fits-all approach to precision medicine grounded in host–microbe interactions.