Biological and Mechanical Comparison of Eggshell-Derived Hydroxyapatite, Calcium Hydroxide, and Mineral Trioxide Aggregate

Abstract

This study compared the mechanical properties of eggshell-derived hydroxyapatite (ESDHA), mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA), and calcium hydroxide (CH), and evaluated their cytotoxicity using human dental pulp stem cells (HDPSCs). Cement samples were prepared and incubated at 37°C under humid conditions. Cytotoxicity was assessed using extracts collected at different setting periods, followed by real-time cell analysis. Compressive strength was measured at multiple time points. Structural and chemical characterisation was performed using X-ray diffractometry, Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy. ESDHA and MTA showed no cytotoxic effects, whereas CH exhibited initial cytotoxicity with a doubling time of 42.32 ± 1.69 h on day 1. MTA demonstrated the highest compressive strength (85.6 ± 3.2 MPa at 28 days), followed by ESDHA (18.9 ± 1.4 MPa), while CH had the lowest strength (5.1 ± 0.4 MPa). ESDHA appears to be a promising, cost-effective alternative with favourable cytocompatibility but requires mechanical improvement.