Spatiotemporal heterogeneity of human footprint across China's coastal zone: Integrating geomorphic and policy drivers

Abstract

Human activities and resource exploitation are increasingly concentrated in coastal zones, highlighting the need for objective quantification of human activity intensity and long-term trends to inform sustainable management. This study develops a thirty-year (1990–2020) human footprint map for China's coastal zone at a 1km² resolution, integrating multi-source anthropogenic pressure data with coastal-specific indicators. The analysis reveals distinct spatial patterns across coastal geomorphological units and functional zoning categories. Results show that coastal-adapted indicators effectively capture spatiotemporal heterogeneity in human pressure. Overall, human activity intensity has increased along China's coastline, with higher pressure observed on muddy coasts north of Shanghai compared to the bedrock coasts of the south. Biological and sandy coasts exhibit slower intensification rates. Among functional zones, urban coastal areas display the highest cumulative growth in human footprint, while ecological conservation zones demonstrate effectiveness in limiting anthropogenic impact. This study provides a spatially explicit foundation for integrated land-sea management and supports the design of development and conservation strategies tailored to China's dynamic coastal systems.