Synthesis of Flavonols via Pyrrolidine Catalysis: Origins of the Selectivity for Flavonol versus Aurone

Abstract

A novel synthetic method for flavonol from 2′-hydroxyl acetophenone and benzaldehyde promoted by pyrrolidine under an aerobic condition in water is established. This protocol was supported by efficient synthesis of 44 common examples and three natural products. The α, β-unsaturated iminium ion (enimine ion E) was proved to be the key intermediate in the reaction. H₂¹⁸O and ¹⁸O₂ isotope tracking experiments demonstrated that both water and the aerobic atmosphere were necessary to ensure the transformation. The selectivity for flavonol or aurone was originated from solvent-triggered intermediates, which were determined by UV–visible spectra from isolated enimine. The phenol-iminium E-A is dominant in water and the ketoenamine intermediate E-B is prevalent in acetonitrile. In the presence of pyrrolidine and oxygen, E-A leads to flavonol through E-I, a zwitterionic-like phenoloxyl-iminium ion, following the key steps of cyclization and a [2 + 2] oxidation; E-B proceeds through path II, a radical process induced by photolysis of E-B with both pyrrolidine and oxygen, to afford aurone. Preliminary mechanistic studies are reported.