Assessing mining-related land footprints of global steel use with a global physical input–output model

Abstract

The production of iron and steel poses numerous sustainability challenges, including the often-overlooked environmental impact of iron ore mining through its land use. Although the global area affected is small, iron ore mining involves intensive land exploitation, with sites typically located far from steel users, creating a disconnect between impacts and beneficiaries. This study overcomes this disconnect by applying a consumption-based footprint perspective to quantify land-related pressures and impacts of mining, providing quantitative evidence for debates about responsibility and impact mitigation. A multi-regional physical input–output model of global iron-steel supply chains is extended with geospatial data on biomes, mining-related land use, and associated impacts (human appropriation of net primary production). The results show that the majority of mining-related land impacts are attributable to steel use in China and Europe (48% and 16%, respectively). Per-capita indicators reveal that China ranks fourth in terms of steel use, but first in embodied land impacts, which is due to its high indirect iron ore requirement per unit of steel use (3.28 t/t). If China were to match Japan's indirect iron ore requirement (1.70 t/t), its mining-land impacts could decrease by 59%. Notably, 71% of China's embodied land impacts occur domestically, offering greater control over impact mitigation than other regions. Europe, the region with the largest share of tropical biomes in its embodied iron ore imports (39.5%), bears significant responsibility for mining-related impacts in these ecologically vulnerable regions. We highlight policy implications, especially for China and Europe, and conclude with a discussion of the modeling approach. This article met the requirements for a gold-gold JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges.