The Frequency, Nature, Impact, and Coping Strategies of Nonconsensual Intimate Image Dissemination Victimization: A Scoping Review.

Abstract

Young adults increasingly initiate, maintain, and end sexual relationships online, an evolution that has also transformed how sexual violence may be perpetrated. Nonconsensual intimate image dissemination (NCIID) has gained attention in research, policy, and media. Yet, to date, there has been no synthesis of the literature on NCIID victimization. The goals of this review were to: (a) describe the frequency and nature of NCIID victimization, (b) examine the impacts of experiencing NCIID, and (c) identify survivor coping strategies. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ProQuest were systematically searched for peer-reviewed qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods studies published in English by February 1, 2025. A total of 49 studies met the inclusion criteria. The reported frequency of NCIID ranged from 3% to 65%, with higher rates among those who experienced some other form of technology-facilitated sexual violence. Perpetrators were often current or former partners, and content was shared through both private messaging and public platforms. Victim-survivors frequently reported psychological (e.g., depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder), social (e.g., ostracism, victim-blaming), and academic/occupational harms. Help-seeking strategies included disclosing to trusted others, legal action, and content reporting, while coping through avoidance strategies included relocation, withdrawal, or trying to act as if nothing happened. Barriers to help-seeking included stigma, lack of awareness, and prior negative experiences with authorities. Findings highlight the urgent need for survivor-centered support systems, awareness campaigns, and broader conversations about consent in digitally mediated sexual encounters.