Heart Failure Biomarkers-Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Prognosis and Clinical Relevance.

Abstract

Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome characterized by impaired cardiac function and maladaptive neurohormonal activation, representing one of the leading causes of morbidity, hospitalization, and mortality worldwide. Both its incidence and prevalence continue to rise, largely as a consequence of population aging and the increasing burden of cardiovascular risk factors. The pathogenesis of HF is multifactorial, involving a dynamic interplay between inflammation and neurohormonal activation, ultimately leading to cardiac remodeling, diastolic dysfunction, and impaired cardiac output. In this context, numerous biomarkers have been investigated for diagnosis and prognosis utility in patients with HF. According to their underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, biomarkers in HF can be broadly categorized as indicators of inflammation, oxidative stress, cardiac remodeling, myocardial stress, neurohormonal activation, and cardiomyocyte injury. This review summarizes current knowledge on the pathophysiological basis of HF and highlights the diagnostic and prognostic relevance of circulating biomarkers, emphasizing their role in linking disease mechanisms with clinical management.