{"title":"A Secured Swarm Intelligence-based Path Selection framework for Malicious Low-power and Lossy Networks under RPL protocol","authors":"Hanin Almutairi , Salem AlJanah , Ning Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.iot.2025.101776","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Low-power and Lossy Networks (LLNs) face persistent challenges, including dynamic topologies, unreliable links, limited energy, and constrained computational resources. These issues are exacerbated under malicious conditions such as Packet Dropping Attacks (PDAs), where conventional routing and security mechanisms fall short due to their high computational overhead. To address these challenges, this paper proposes the Secured Swarm Intelligence-based Path Selection (S-SIPaS) framework, designed to enhance reliability and security in Malicious LLNs (MLLNs). S-SIPaS builds on our previous SIPaS framework by integrating a lightweight trust model and a novel Secured Ant Colony Objective Function (S-ACOF) into the RPL protocol. S-ACOF applies Ant Colony Optimisation (ACO) principles to compute globally optimal, trustworthy paths while reducing energy consumption and control overhead. A key feature of S-SIPaS is its three-phase trust model: monitoring, trust measurement, and trust determination, which detects and isolates malicious nodes based on packet-forwarding behaviour, without relying on cryptographic techniques.</div><div>The framework combines multiple routing metrics, including physical distance, energy level, link quality, and trust score, enabling adaptive and efficient path selection in dynamic LLNs. Simulation results show that S-SIPaS improves Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) by up to 51% over existing methods, especially in high-density and high-attack scenarios.</div><div>Despite strong performance, the framework has limitations: (i) it requires C1-class nodes (e.g., Z1); (ii) evaluation is limited to simulations; and (iii) it currently addresses only PDA threats and static topologies. Overall, S-SIPaS offers an effective, scalable, and secure routing solution for enhancing MLLNs and IoT systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":29968,"journal":{"name":"Internet of Things","volume":"34 ","pages":"Article 101776"},"PeriodicalIF":7.6000,"publicationDate":"2025-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"0","resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":null,"PeriodicalName":"Internet of Things","FirstCategoryId":"94","ListUrlMain":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2542660525002902","RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":null,"EPubDate":"","PubModel":"","JCR":"Q1","JCRName":"COMPUTER SCIENCE, INFORMATION SYSTEMS","Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Abstract
Low-power and Lossy Networks (LLNs) face persistent challenges, including dynamic topologies, unreliable links, limited energy, and constrained computational resources. These issues are exacerbated under malicious conditions such as Packet Dropping Attacks (PDAs), where conventional routing and security mechanisms fall short due to their high computational overhead. To address these challenges, this paper proposes the Secured Swarm Intelligence-based Path Selection (S-SIPaS) framework, designed to enhance reliability and security in Malicious LLNs (MLLNs). S-SIPaS builds on our previous SIPaS framework by integrating a lightweight trust model and a novel Secured Ant Colony Objective Function (S-ACOF) into the RPL protocol. S-ACOF applies Ant Colony Optimisation (ACO) principles to compute globally optimal, trustworthy paths while reducing energy consumption and control overhead. A key feature of S-SIPaS is its three-phase trust model: monitoring, trust measurement, and trust determination, which detects and isolates malicious nodes based on packet-forwarding behaviour, without relying on cryptographic techniques.
The framework combines multiple routing metrics, including physical distance, energy level, link quality, and trust score, enabling adaptive and efficient path selection in dynamic LLNs. Simulation results show that S-SIPaS improves Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) by up to 51% over existing methods, especially in high-density and high-attack scenarios.
Despite strong performance, the framework has limitations: (i) it requires C1-class nodes (e.g., Z1); (ii) evaluation is limited to simulations; and (iii) it currently addresses only PDA threats and static topologies. Overall, S-SIPaS offers an effective, scalable, and secure routing solution for enhancing MLLNs and IoT systems.
期刊介绍:
Internet of Things; Engineering Cyber Physical Human Systems is a comprehensive journal encouraging cross collaboration between researchers, engineers and practitioners in the field of IoT & Cyber Physical Human Systems. The journal offers a unique platform to exchange scientific information on the entire breadth of technology, science, and societal applications of the IoT.
The journal will place a high priority on timely publication, and provide a home for high quality.
Furthermore, IOT is interested in publishing topical Special Issues on any aspect of IOT.