Self-objectification is (Still) gendered: A meta-analysis across measures and societal contexts

Abstract

Is self-objectification still a gendered experience in contemporary societies? To address this question, we conducted a three-level meta-analysis of 158 effect sizes from 78 studies involving 74,216 participants across 16 countries. Results revealed a robust gender difference (d = 0.35), with women consistently reporting higher self-objectification than men. This difference was significantly moderated by both measurement type and societal gender equality. Body surveillance measures yielded the largest gender gaps, and—paradoxically—gender differences were more pronounced in countries with higher gender equality, supporting the gender-equality paradox. Conversely, cultural orientation (collectivism), sample age, and publication year did not significantly moderate the effect in multivariate models. These findings suggest that self-objectification remains deeply gendered—and that sociocultural progress may, in some contexts, amplify rather than reduce appearance-based disparities. We highlight the need for more gender-sensitive measurement tools and culturally grounded theoretical frameworks to better understand how self-objectification operates across diverse social environments.