From design to detection: MOF-functional nanomaterial hybrids for ultrasensitive electrochemical monitoring pharmaceutical contaminants in the aquatic environment

Abstract

Improper disposal of pharmaceutical waste, ineffective wastewater treatment, and manufacturing runoff have resulted in enduring drug residues in aquatic habitats. These pollutants bioaccumulate, foster antimicrobial resistance, and present significant threats to both environmental and human health. This study offers a concentrated evaluation of hybrid electrochemical sensors that combine metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with functional nanomaterials for the very sensitive detection of drugs in water. This paper highlights recent advancements (2022–2025) in molecularly designed MOFs, post-synthetic alterations, and the incorporation of conductive nanomaterials, which tackle persistent challenges of hydrolytic instability and inadequate conductivity. We critically examine manufacturing methodologies, including in situ metal-organic framework growth on nanomaterial scaffolds, polymer-assisted assembly, and downsized electrode designs, which provide enhanced electron transport, analyte pre-concentration, and field deployability. Case studies demonstrate the detection of antibiotics, analgesics, and hormones in water at nanomolar to femtomolar concentrations, emphasizing reliability in intricate matrices. We delineate existing challenges-sensor fouling, reusability, and commercial scalability-and present solutions including resilient antifouling coatings, multiplexed sensor arrays, and wireless IoT-enabled systems. This focused study seeks to direct future efforts towards the development of scalable, field-deployable MOF/nanomaterial electrochemical sensors for the protection of water quality.