Review of sustainability challenges for lithium production: The case of Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile in the Lithium Triangle

Abstract

This review article examines the sustainability challenges facing lithium extraction and production in Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile. These three countries form the “Lithium Triangle” and hold approximately 50 % of the world’s known lithium resources. As the global demand for lithium surges with the booming battery industry for electric vehicles and electronics, these countries face the challenge of managing their vast resources to maximize economic benefits while addressing sustainability concerns. We identify a total of 123 articles published between 2015 and 2025, which encompassed at least one dimension of sustainability, conceptualized in terms of environmental, social and governance categories. From these, we identified two well-known dimensions linked to environmental, social, and governance impacts in the South American lithium industry – water use and Indigenous rights. However, our study also points to a more complex set of sustainability concerns that are often sidelined. These include impacts on biodiversity, health, and the governance mechanisms through which lithium is governed in the three countries.