Electrochemical sensors for the detection of macrolide antibiotics: a review

Abstract

Antibiotics have transformed medicine by effectively treating infectious diseases in humans and livestock. However, their misuse has led to the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, making antimicrobial resistance a significant public health challenge of the 21st century. Among the various antibiotic families, macrolides are one of the most frequently prescribed antibiotics. The recent increase in research on electrochemical sensors for macrolide antibiotics (MAs) detection highlights the need for a critical review to summarize recent developments, address current challenges, and outline future research directions, filling a notable gap in literature. While existing reviews have addressed electrochemical detection of other antibiotic classes, there is a conspicuous gap regarding MAs, likely due to historical focus shifts stemming from concerns over serious side effects associated with macrolide derivatives. However, recent advancements have reignited interest in this class, suggesting a macrolide renaissance with potential for novel, safe antibiotics.

This review outlines various electrochemical techniques employed for MAs detection, focusing on surface modifications and detection mechanisms. Electrode surface modifications have enhanced the electroanalytical performance of sensors, enabling the detection of trace levels of MAs in complex samples such as pharmaceuticals, biological fluids, and food matrices. However, the extent of these improvements is often debated in real-world applications. Further advancements are essential to address specific limitations and validate the reliability of electrochemical methods over traditional separation-based techniques. Despite these hurdles, electrochemical sensing offers significant potential for managing and monitoring MAs across various samples, with integration of smartphones and communication devices enhancing the accessibility of point-of-care testing.