Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction of the Settlement Area of Ancient Bubastis (Tell Basta), Southeastern Nile Delta (Egypt)

Abstract

Over the past century, archaeological investigations at the ancient city of Bubastis (Tell Basta) have revealed a complex urban landscape featuring temples, a palace, and cemeteries. However, the eastern part of the city remains poorly understood. According to Herodotus—the only historical textual source—and supported by surface finds, this area likely functioned as the main living quarter from at least the Late Period through the Roman Period. This study presents the first area-wide geoarchaeological reconstruction of the Holocene landscape and settlement history in eastern Bubastis. Using coring, electrical resistivity tomography, and direct current resistivity soundings, we identified several Pleistocene sand mounds (‘Geziras’) that provided flood-safe locations for key buildings and housing. Surrounding low-lying floodplain areas, regularly inundated by the Nile, were likely used for agriculture. The thickest anthropogenic deposits—up to 9.5 m—were documented in settlement area S1, reflecting dense occupation during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. In contrast, area S2 was sparsely settled and likely used for farming, benefiting from nutrient-rich floodplain sediments deposited by a nearby Nile branch. These findings highlight long-term human–environment interactions and demonstrate the value of integrated geoarchaeological approaches for reconstructing landscape and settlement dynamics in the Nile Delta.