The exchange of the iron process in the northwest of west han empire: a case study of the Xingfucheng cemetery site, Guyuan, Ningxia, Northwest China, ca. 202 BC-113 BC

Abstract

The Xingfucheng (XFC) site, unearthed in Pengyang County, Guyuan City, Ningxia, China, in 2013, represents a significant archaeological discovery dating to the early Western Han Dynasty, no later than the 2nd century BC. This site, among the most prestigious unearthed in northwest China from this era, has excavated affluent iron artifacts. The comprehensive analysis of 15 iron artifacts from the XFC site, employing metallographic microscopy, alloy composition assessment, and the examination of slag inclusions, has elucidated the metallurgical technologies of the period. The findings indicate a predominance of cast iron products, including white cast iron, mottled cast iron, and solid-state decarburization of cast iron, at the site. Notably, most unearthed weapons and agricultural implements were made of solid-state decarburization of cast iron, manufactured using carburizing, decarburizing, and quenching processes to fine-tune their properties. An iron axe identified among the artifacts represents one of the earliest puddling steel technologies in the northwestern region before the 2nd century BC, marking a first for the Ningxia area. Additionally, the analysis shows that bloomery carburized steel was used to fabricate a hoop, further contributing to understanding ancient metallurgical practices in this region. These discoveries underscore Ningxia’s significance as a key hub for technological interactions, linking China and Central Asia and promoting the exchange of metallurgical advancements during the Han Dynasty.