Ecological sensitivities to the interplay of Allee effects, prey refuge and supplementary food resources in a predator–prey system

Abstract

This study presents a modified prey–predator model incorporating the Allee effect and Holling-type IV functional response to explore complex dynamics arising from anti-predator behavior, cooperative defense, prey refuge mechanisms, and additional food for the predator. The model is analyzed to explore stability, bifurcation behavior, and population thresholds for the species coexistence. By introducing factors, such as prey refuge and alternative food sources for predator, our study highlights the intricate feedback mechanisms stabilizing population cycles. The simulation results highlight that enhancing prey refuge and incorporating Allee effects can promote prey growth while limiting predator abundance. Additionally, we observe that when the prey growth rate is low, only the predator species can survive. Overall, our findings extend classical results, offering a robust framework for the long-term ecological balance.