Joule heating for carbon material Synthesis: Mechanisms, material evolution, and sustainable prospects

Abstract

Joule heating (JH) presents a promising electrothermal approach for the sustainable synthesis and regulation of carbon materials. Its ultrafast heating, high energy efficiency, and scalability enable the rapid transformation of various precursors into carbon structures with tunable properties. This review presents an overview of JH-based synthesis of diverse carbon materials, including graphitic carbon, flash graphene (FG), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and carbon nanofibers (CNFs). It also summarizes strategies for heteroatom doping and metal incorporation aimed at enhancing electrochemical, catalytic, and structural performance. Understanding the mechanisms behind JH-induced transformations is crucial for optimizing the process. Machine learning (ML) and multiscale simulations reveal reaction pathways, defect evolution, and electronic structure changes under extreme thermal conditions, thereby supporting the predictive control of material behavior. The review further evaluates the environmental and economic feasibility of JH through life cycle assessment (LCA), quantifying energy inputs, carbon emissions, and costs to assess its sustainability as a manufacturing method. Several challenges hinder the scale-up of JH, such as unstable electrode performance, limited real-time monitoring, and barriers to large-scale production. Overcoming these barriers is essential to realizing its full industrial potential. This review connects synthesis, mechanism, modeling, and sustainability assessment to highlight the potential of JH for the efficient, controllable, and environmentally responsible production of carbon materials for low-carbon energy technologies and green manufacturing processes.