Antimicrobial materials for water infrastructure: Mitigating biofouling and pathogen contamination

Abstract

Microbial contamination and biofouling remain persistent threats to global water infrastructure, compromising water quality, system longevity, and public health. Traditional chemical disinfection methods, though effective, often fall short due to limitations such as short residual activity, formation of harmful by-products, and microbial resistance. As a result, the integration of antimicrobial materials into water infrastructure has gained traction as a sustainable and proactive solution. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current antimicrobial strategies, including passive and active approaches, and examines the physicochemical mechanisms by which these materials inhibit microbial colonization. Key categories such as metal-based agents for example silver, copper, polymeric compounds, carbon-based nanomaterials, photocatalytic surfaces, and hybrid composites are analyzed in terms of mode of action, effectiveness, and limitations. The review also highlights the mechanisms of antimicrobial activity ranging from cell membrane disruption to quorum sensing interference and discusses real-world challenges including environmental safety, material degradation, scalability, and regulatory uncertainty. Furthermore, it explores emerging technologies such as smart responsive materials, green biopolymers, and digitally integrated antimicrobial systems. By synthesizing current knowledge and identifying research gaps, this paper underscores the transformative potential of antimicrobial materials to reshape water infrastructure into self-sanitizing, resilient systems essential for safeguarding public health and environmental sustainability.