Progress in cathode catalysts for rechargeable aprotic lithium–oxygen batteries

Abstract

Lithium–oxygen batteries (LOBs) are highly esteemed for their exceptional energy density (∼3500 Wh kg⁻¹) and are regarded as one of the most promising battery technologies. However, several challenges hinder the commercialization and widespread adoption of LOBs, including side reactions occurring at the lithium anode, electrolyte decomposition, and growth of lithium dendrites. These issues contribute to reduced cycle life and increased overpotential, adversely affecting the performance of LOBs. Consequently, exploring effective cathode catalysts is crucial for advancing this field. Initially, this review provides background information on LOBs, including that on singlet oxygen formation, and then clearly and succinctly outlines their operational mechanisms. Subsequently, a detailed analysis of recent developments in cathode catalysts for aprotic LOBs is presented, notably spin engineering and amorphization strategy for spinel oxides and development of high-entropy alloys. Finally, innovative directions are proposed, especially new soluble catalysts and machine learning, for investigating cathode catalysts and enhancing the electrochemical performance of LOBs considering existing challenges.