The origins of copper ores at Gre Fiılla (TÜRKİYE): Lead isotopic evidence for multi-source procurement

Abstract

Gre Fılla in southeastern Anatolia is a Pre-Pottery Neolithic site that provides critical insights into the emergence of metallurgy. Excavations at the site have revealed numerous copper ore fragments and copper objects, indicating an early engagement with metal production. Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS) and lead isotope analysis (LIA) of copper ore samples from Gre Fılla demonstrates a multi-source procurement strategy. While the majority of samples exhibit isotopic signatures consistent with the Bolkar–Ergani group, defined by overlapping values from southeastern and central Anatolian deposits, some samples closely align with the Alihoca ore deposit. These results indicate that copper used at Gre Fılla came from both nearby and distant sources, reflecting the existence of complex and long-distance networks during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB). Additionally, the presence of various sources both for obsidian and copper highlights the community’s integration into extensive systems of “exotic” material exchange. Such networks likely played a key role in fostering cultural connectivity across the Near East, contributing to the shared development of rituals, symbolic practices, and craft traditions observed among early Neolithic societies.