The advent of complex metallurgy

Abstract

This study investigates the origins of extractive metallurgy in the southern Levant. It explores the beginnings of extractive metallurgy during the Ghassulian culture of the Chalcolithic period (approximately 4700/4500–3800 BCE), providing evidence that the production of complex alloys began earlier than previously believed. Utilizing a new radiocarbon sampling method that focuses on the production dates of metal objects rather than when they were discarded, the research examines artifacts from the famous Naḫal Mishmar hoard and their ritual context in Israel's Judean Desert. The study highlights the impact of the evolution of long-distance trade in copper alloys over time. The contrast between sophisticated objects made using the lost-wax technique with metal alloys from distant sources and simpler copper tools of local origin emphasizes the technological and socio-economic complexity of early metallurgy and trade in West Asia during the Chalcolithic era. Recent excavations at the Chalcolithic shrine in Ein Gedi provide valuable new insights that enhance our understanding of the chronology of Ghassulian culture. These findings can also help clarify the long-discussed relationship between the Ein Gedi shrine and the Naḫal Mishmar hoard.