Artificial Intelligence and the Evolving Landscape of Immunopeptidomics.

Abstract

Background: Immunopeptidomics is the large-scale study of peptides presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules and plays a central role in neoantigen discovery and cancer immunotherapy. However, the complexity of mass spectrometry data, the diversity of peptide sources, and variability in immune responses present major challenges in this field.

Review focus: In recent years, artificial intelligence (AI)-based methods have become central to advancing key steps in immunopeptidomics. It has enabled advances in de novo sequencing, peptide-spectrum matching, spectrum prediction, MHC binding prediction, and T cell recognition modeling. In this review, we examine these applications in detail, highlighting how AI is integrated into each stage of the immunopeptidomics workflow.

Case study: This review presents a focused case study on breast cancer, a heterogeneous and historically less immunogenic tumor type, to examine how AI may help overcome limitations in identifying actionable neoantigens.

Challenges and future perspectives: We discuss current bottlenecks, including challenges in modeling noncanonical peptides, accounting for antigen processing defects, and avoiding on-target off-tumor toxicity. Finally, we outline future directions for improving AI models to support both personalized and off-the-shelf immunotherapy strategies.

Summary: Artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping the immunopeptidomics landscape by overcoming challenges in peptide identification, immunogenicity prediction, and neoantigen prioritization. This review highlights how AI-based tools enhance the detection of MHC-bound peptides-including low-abundance, noncanonical, and post-translationally modified epitopes and improve peptide-spectrum matching and T-cell epitope prediction. By demonstrating a case study on applications in breast cancer, we illustrate the potential of AI to reveal hidden immunogenic features in tumors previously likely considered immunologically "cold." These advancements open new opportunities for expanding neoantigen discovery pipelines and optimizing cancer immunotherapies. Looking ahead, the application of deep learning, transfer learning, and integrated multi-omics models may further elevate the accuracy and scalability of immunopeptidomics, enabling more effective and inclusive vaccine and T-cell therapy development.