A comprehensive review of electrochemical lactate biosensors: Principles, innovations, and future perspectives

Abstract

Lactate, a pivotal metabolite in cellular energetics, has garnered significant attention as a biomarker for assessing physiological status in sports science and clinical diagnostics. The limitations of traditional invasive lactate measurement methods have spurred the development of electrochemical biosensors, offering pathways for real-time, non-invasive, and continuous monitoring. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the progress in electrochemical lactate biosensors, with a particular focus on their application in enhancing sports science and performance monitoring. Fundamental principles, including amperometric, voltammetric, and potentiometric detection, alongside the roles of lactate oxidase and lactate dehydrogenase, are discussed. Recent advancements highlight the transformative impact of nanomaterials such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, metal/metal oxide nanoparticles, and MXenes in improving sensor sensitivity, stability, and selectivity. Innovations in fabrication techniques, including screen printing, 3D printing, and microfluidics, are paving the way for sophisticated wearable devices targeting sweat, saliva, and interstitial fluid. The application of these biosensors in sports for determining lactate thresholds, monitoring exercise intensity, managing fatigue, and optimizing training is critically examined. Despite significant strides, challenges related to analytical performance, biofluid correlation with blood, sensor-body interface, and data interpretation persist. Future directions point towards multiplexed sensing, integration with the Internet of Things (IoT), and the application of artificial intelligence and machine learning for advanced data analytics, heralding an era of personalized and data-driven athletic training and healthcare.