Paratransit in the digital era: A comparative systematic literature review and transferability of developed-country models to developing countries

Abstract

Paratransit systems, characterized by flexibility and demand responsiveness, bridge critical gaps in urban mobility for low-income and marginalized populations. In the digital era, emerging technologies offer opportunities to improve efficiency, accessibility, and sustainability. This study presents a comparative review of minibus-based paratransit in developed and developing contexts by combining a bibliometric analysis of literature published between 2016 and April 2025 with a qualitative assessment of case studies and pilot projects. The findings show that in developing countries, these systems remain largely less formal and user-driven, serving both trunk and feeder functions. In contrast, paratransit services in developed countries operate under formal regulations and employ advanced information and communication technology to serve older adults and individuals with disabilities. Building on these insights, this study proposes an integrated demand-responsive transit transferability framework for action that covers technology, service design, integration, and business model components, each supported by specific regulatory enablers and practical strategies. The framework guides policymakers, transit agencies, and technology providers in adapting digital solutions across diverse socioeconomic and infrastructural environments. Key challenges include regulatory fragmentation, gaps in digital literacy, and financing constraints. The study concludes by outlining priority research directions to improve driver certification, advance multimodal integration, and develop sustainable digital business models that balance cost effectiveness, inclusivity, and environmental objectives.