In-Situ Atomic-Scale Revelation of Amorphous Metallic Iron Formation during Hydrogen-Driven Reduction of Iron Oxides

Abstract

The transition to hydrogen as a green reductant in metal production is critical for decarbonizing the metallurgical industry, yet atomic-scale mechanisms governing reduction pathways and phase evolution remain unresolved. Using in situ environmental transmission electron microscopy, we identify a hidden pathway that reveals dynamic formation of amorphous metallic iron (Fe) during the hydrogen-driven reduction of ferrous oxides of Fe₃O₄ and FeO. Real-time imaging uncovers three coexisting transformation routes: (i) Fe₃O₄ → FeO, (ii) Fe₃O₄ → amorphous Fe, and (iii) FeO → amorphous Fe. The resulting amorphous Fe exhibits fluid-like mobility, enabling its rapid aggregation and crystallization into core–shell nanostructures, with a crystalline core enveloped by an amorphous shell. Complementary ab initio molecular dynamics simulations trace the amorphous Fe formation to interfacial strain at the metal/oxide interfaces, where large lattice mismatches destabilize the metal lattice during initial metallization. This interplay between thermodynamics and kinetics governs phase evolution: thermodynamics favors a self-limiting amorphous Fe overlayer, while rapid oxide reduction kinetics drives amorphous overgrowth. Our findings demonstrate that amorphous intermediates bypass rate-limiting crystalline steps, providing mechanistic insights to optimize H₂-based processes for sustainable steelmaking. These insights bridge the gap between macroscopic process engineering and atomic-scale dynamics, with broader implications for catalysis and nanostructured material synthesis, where oxide reduction pathways critically shape functional phases and microstructures.