Beyond the “Luxury Food” Paradigm: Reassessing the social significance of rice in Late Neolithic (4500–4000 cal BP) Southeastern Shandong, China

Abstract

The role of food in hierarchical societies has been widely discussed, particularly for rice (Oryza sativa L.), a crop of great economic importance and symbolic significance in Asia. Previous studies have emphasized the role of rice as a luxury food and a status symbol in the middle and lower Yellow River during the Late Neolithic to Bronze Age, primarily based on its concentrated presence in large settlements in various areas. However, the “luxury food” hypothesis remains contested due to insufficient comparative analysis of rice utilization patterns across settlements of different sizes. This study examines the nature of rice farming practices and the social significance of rice during the Late Neolithic period through new archaeobotanical evidence from Sujiacun (4,500–4,000 cal BP) alongside material from contemporaneous sites in southeastern Shandong, China. The results suggest that rice processing and consumption at Sujiacun were organized at the household level, with cooperation among households for some activities. We argue that rice served as a staple food across settlements of different sizes in southeastern Shandong, a pattern that transcends the explanatory scope of the traditional “luxury food” paradigm. This widespread adoption was driven by improvements in rice cultivation techniques, supported by community cooperation and inter–household collaboration. The study reveals that the social significance of rice is dynamic in both time and space, influenced by the developmental trajectories of rice cultivation in different social and environmental contexts. This further underscores the importance of evaluating specific archaeological contexts in investigations about access to rice or to other hypothesized luxury foods.