Prevalence of trypanosomiasis in domesticated animals in Indonesia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Abstract

Background and aim: Trypanosomiasis is a vector-borne parasitic disease with significant implications for animal health and rural livelihoods in Indonesia. Despite surveillance efforts, comprehensive national-level estimates of its prevalence in domesticated animals remain lacking. This study aimed to synthesize the pooled prevalence of trypanosomiasis across Indonesian provinces, identify contributing factors, and assess trends over time using a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Materials and methods: A systematic search was conducted in seven electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Cochrane Library, ProQuest, and Google Scholar) for articles published between 1988 and 2024. Eligible studies reported primary prevalence data of trypanosomiasis in domesticated animals within Indonesia. A total of 18 studies with 4,295 samples met the inclusion criteria. Random-effects meta-analysis was performed using R Studio 4.4.2. Subgroup analyses were conducted based on animal host, diagnostic method, province, and study period. Heterogeneity was assessed through I² and τ² statistics, and publication bias was evaluated using Egger's test and funnel plots.

Results: The pooled prevalence of trypanosomiasis in domesticated animals across Indonesia was 31.23% (95% confidence interval: 24.67-37.78), with considerable heterogeneity (I² = 98.1%). Buffaloes exhibited the highest infection rate at 51.46%, followed by cattle (33.99%), whereas horses and dogs had notably lower rates (<6%). Provinces with the highest reported prevalence included Lampung (75.05%) and Central Kalimantan (75.00%). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was the most frequently used and sensitive diagnostic method. Meta-regression revealed a declining trend over time (p = 0.0002), although high variability persisted between regions and diagnostic tools.

Conclusion: Trypanosomiasis remains endemic among domesticated animals in Indonesia, with a substantial pooled prevalence and marked regional variability. The findings underscore the need for improved surveillance, implementation of standardized diagnostic tools, and integrated vector management strategies. Future research should focus on ecological risk factors, seasonality, and the zoonotic potential of Trypanosoma evansi to support evidence-based control interventions.